Roman Catholic Preaching – Hermigild Dressler

One would naturally expect a Christian sermon to be modeled after the sermons of the Master. A verbatim report, however, of a full length sermon preached by Christ has not come down to us. While it is a matter of record that the first Christians gathered for the breaking of the bread and for prayer (Acts 2:42), there is no surviving evidence of a sermon delivered on such occasions.

True, seven discourses delivered by Peter are mentioned (Acts 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 11, 15) and six by Paul (Acts 13, 14, 17, 20, 22, 26). These accounts may faithfully reproduce the preaching of these apostles, or may be an account of it as reported by a Christian writer near the end of the first century A.D. In either case, this record yields little direct evidence for the history of the sermon preached within the Christian community itself.

It is difficult to judge accurately how widespread the charismatic speaking mentioned by Paul (1 Cor. 12:1–11, 27–31; 14; Eph. 4:7–16) actually was, and the phenomenon disappeared as the Christian communities developed. In general, surviving evidence points to the apostles and those whom they placed in charge of the Christian communities as the normal preachers during the apostolic age.

1. THE SUBAPOSTOLIC AGE AND THE THIRD CENTURY

The earliest extant evidence showing the sermon as a part of the Eucharistic worship service dates from the time of Justin Martyr. In his Apology I 67, written between A.D. 150–155, he says that the Christians gathered on Sundays and that the memoirs of the apostles and the writings of the prophets were read. When the reader had finished “the bishop gives the admonition and invites us to imitate these noble men” (T. Jalland, Studia Patristica, vol. 5, pp. 83–85). Justin’s account continues with a description of the rest of the service. The preacher, it should be noted, is the bishop. Slightly later Tertullian refers to preaching under similar circumstances (Apology 39.3; On the Soul 9.20) without, however, identifying the preacher. None of these references give much information on the actual content of the sermon.

The so-called Second Epistle of Clement merits attention as the oldest extant Christian sermon. Written in Greek by an unknown author between A.D. 150 and 170, this unliterary sermon of general content emphasizes belief in the divinity of Christ, exhorts the hearers to bear witness to Christ by their exemplary lives, stresses the need for good works, and ends with a doxology.

Eusebius has preserved the earliest evidence that, in some regions at least, preaching was not restricted to bishops. Early in the third century Origen went to Palestine “and although he had not yet received the presbyterate, the bishops there requested him to discourse and expound the divine Scriptures publicly in the church” (Ecclesiastical History 6.19). Demetrius, bishop of Alexandria, protested strenuously against the procedure but the bishop of Jerusalem and the bishop of Caesarea cited the example of their brother bishops in Asia Minor at Laranda, Iconium, and Synnada and were inclined to think that “this thing happens in other places also without our knowing it.” Origen’s sermons generally followed this pattern: exordium, practical application of a selected Scriptural text explained according to the allegorical method of interpretation, exhortation, and finally a doxology. The discourses of this gifted speaker were taken down in shorthand by scribes according to the testimony of Eusebius (op. cit. 6.36). The meager extant evidence for preaching in Latin during this period centers around the church of northern Africa. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, who died as a martyr in A.D. 257 was the outstanding preacher. Lactantius found it difficult to decide whether Cyprian was “more ornate in eloquence, or more successful in explanation, or more powerful in persuasion” (The Divine Institutes 5.1)

With the end of the persecutions and the peace which came to the church with the accession of Constantine a new era for preaching began. The outstanding preachers educated in the best schools of the day, e.g., Athens, Antioch, Alexandria, trained by such eminent rhetoricians as Himerius and Libanius, brought to the office of preaching in addition to their professional rhetorical training an astounding familiarity with the sacred Scripture. As the church attracted converts from the more educated circles of society an audience was at hand which could relish the artistic accomplishments of the speakers.

2. GREEK PREACHING

Fourth century Greek preaching is dominated by Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, and Gregory of Nazianzus. Basil’s significant contribution to preaching is found in the exegetical homily which he enhanced with the embellishments of Greek rhetoric. The homilies on the six days of creation are his masterpieces and in their Latin translation exerted an equally powerful influence in the Latin church for many centuries. The largest legacy of discourses in Greek has been left by Chrysostom who was a master not only in the exegetical homily but also in the occasional discourse and the panegyric. The pleasing rhetorical harmonies and cadences of his sermons frequently elicited spontaneous applause from his audience. Gregory of Nazianzus won renown for the panegyric—Christianized as a sermon form by Gregory the Wonderworker in his eulogy of Origen in 238—and his magnificent funeral orations. His discourses, like those of Basil, translated into Latin were long studied as models by following generations of preachers.

Of all the forms of preaching the panegyric was the most cultivated long after the golden age of Greek preaching had passed. It was used to commemorate the feast days of martyrs and other saints, especially those of the virgin Mary. In the long line of panegyrists the emperors themselves found a place of honor. Leo VI and Constantine Porphyrogennetus are noteworthy examples.

The decline of Greek preaching, however, seems to be clearly indicated in the legislation of the Trullan Synod (692). In its nineteenth canon the Synod instructed bishops to preach to the faithful especially on Sundays, and to adhere to the Fathers, “the luminaries and teachers,” in expounding the Scriptures rather than to compose their own sermons. This synodal enactment explains, at least in part, the proliferation of collections of homilies during the following centuries.

3. LATIN PREACHING

Evidence for preaching in Latin in Gaul, Spain, and Italy becomes more specific by the fourth century as the names of Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and Zeno, bishop of Verona, clearly indicate. The first real Latin rival of the great Greek preachers is Ambrose, bishop of Milan. His proficiency in the exegetical homily, but especially his notable contributions to the Christianizing of the Latin funeral oration, gained for him a place of honor in the history of Latin preaching.

Augustine, bishop of Hippo, dominates fifth century Latin preaching. Upon his ordination to the priesthood in 391 this office was entrusted to him although this was not a common practice at the time in the Latin church. For more than thirty years both as priest and as bishop Augustine preached frequently, at times twice a day. While the training of the former teacher of rhetoric is usually very evident in his discourses Augustine could become almost colloquial when he was addressing audiences which lacked formal training. The fourth book of his treatise On Christian Instruction, which gives practical guidelines for preaching, is more important for the history of the sermon, however, than the legacy of his discourses.

While Jerome, Maximus of Turin, and Pope Leo I deserve mention at least in passing, the year 529 is far more significant for the progress of preaching in the Latin church. In this year the second Council of Vaison, at which the zealous preacher Caesarius, bishop of Arles, presided, authorized priests to preach “for the edification of all the churches and the benefit of all the people not only in the cities, but also in the rural areas.” If illness prevented the priest from preaching the deacons were to read the homilies of the fathers (Hefele-Leclercq, Histoire des Conciles, vol. 2 p. 112). Juridically this conciliar legislation ended the bishops’ monopoly on the right to preach in the west. While the homilies of Pope Gregory I were widely used as models for preachers, his Pastoral Rule with its practical hints for preaching had an even greater influence. It was even translated into Greek during the pope’s lifetime. The meager surviving evidence on preaching during the seventh century makes it impossible to determine the extent to which the legislation of Vaison in 529 was implemented, or what results it produced.

In the eight century the collection of patristic homilies made by Paul the Deacon, though primarily intended for use by monks in the choral performance of the monastic office, also was of service for the clergy in their office of preaching. By the year 789, however, a deplorable state of preaching existed at least in the Frankish kingdom. There were complaints that the clergy did not even know the Lord’s Prayer and that they were not preaching the Scriptures. To remedy this defect the General Admonition (Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Capitularia, 1, pp. 52–56) issued an outline of essential sermon material to be followed by the clergy. An equally gloomy picture of preaching is presented by Theodulf of Orleans in 797 when he complained that some priests could scarcely do more than remind the people to turn away from evil and do good (J. P. Migne, Latin Patrology 105, 200A). The ninth century homiliaries compiled by Alcuin, Rabanus Maurus, and Haymo of Auxerre were invaluable aids for preachers. The history of preaching, however, was more vitally affected in 813 by the third Council of Tours and the second Council of Reims. Both councils directed bishops to provide themselves with homilies containing the necessary teachings for the instruction of the people and to translate these sermons into the early Romance language or German “so that all could more easily understand what is being said.” Some thirty years later the fourth Council of Mainz (847) repeated this legislation concerning the use of the vernacular in preaching.

After this legislation the Crusades, the flowering of scholasticism, and the founding of the mendicant orders were the most significant factors that influenced subsequent preaching in the Latin church. From the tenth to the early thirteenth century important preachers were active, e.g., Peter Damian, Bernard of Clairvaux, Anselm of Canterbury, Ivo of Chartres, Robert of Arbrissel, Alan of Lille. That the sermon texts of medieval preachers have come down to us in Latin is not conclusive evidence that the sermons were delivered in that language. Jacques de Vitry clearly states that while sermons for clerics were in Latin, the vernacular was used for the laity, and Adam of Perseigne complained that the quality of many sermons suffered in the process of translation. Toward the end of the twelfth century the scholastic method of teaching left its mark on preaching. The logic and dialectic of the schools were applied to the sermon topic. The preacher announced his theme much as one of the schoolmen would state his thesis, and then went on to definition, division, subdivision, and distinction citing numerous passages from Scripture and the fathers and concluded by adding arguments from reason to prove his point. Such sermons were preached to faculty and students chiefly in the university cities such as Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge.

Distinct from this scholastic preaching was the popular preaching which by the end of the twelfth century was generally of poor quality. One factor contributing to this low ebb was undoubtedly the low literacy of many of the parish clergy about which the Fourth Lateran Council complained in 1215. Unauthorized preachers and laymen moved in to remedy the unfortunate situation. Among these initially well-intentioned persons were the Humiliati and the Waldenses. Their lack of formal training for preaching eventually involved them in doctrinal errors. Pope Alexander III forbade them to preach and Pope Lucius III finally excommunicated them for refusing to obey. The founding of the Dominicans and Franciscans was a far more effective and correct remedy in this plight. While some of these mendicant friars gained distinction in the more academic type of preaching, e.g., Hugh of Saint-Cher, Thomas Aquinas, Peter of Tarantasia, John of Rupella, Bonaventura, Guibert of Tournai, and Matthew of Aquasparta, far greater numbers devoted themselves to apostolic preaching among the people. Their sermons were in the vernacular on concrete themes, with practical applications to daily life. Homely examples and expressions as well as examples from sacred Scripture and the lives of the saints were used to convey the message. The Council of Vienne (1311–1312) considered this type of preaching so timely that it empowered the Dominicans and Franciscans with apostolic authority to preach freely and ordered prelates and parish priests to cooperate with the friars. The council went even further and granted the Dominicans and Franciscans permission for street preaching and bade prelates and parish priests not to look askance at this procedure (Conciliorum oecumenicorum decreta, pp. 342–344). Famous preachers among the mendicants at this time were Berthold of Regensburg, Bartholomew of Vicenza, Guido of Evreux, James of Lausanne. The mystical sermon, the beginnings of which can be seen already in Bernard of Clairvaux, received an impetus from Bonaventura, and was especially developed as a sermon genre by Meister Eckhart, Johannes Tauler, Henry Suso, and Jean Gerson.

As the various types of sermons were developing a wealth of sermon literature was also being produced. Technical treatises (artes praedicandi) giving instructions for the preparation and directives for the delivery of the sermon were composed. Some of these artes were veritable sermon encyclopedias, as the work of Humbert of Romans. The most widely used medieval sermon aids were the Examples (Exempla) of Jacques de Vitry, The Golden Legend (Legenda aurea) of James of Voragine, the Book of Examples (Liber exemplorum) and Mirror of the Laity (Speculum laicorum) compiled by two unknown Franciscans. Of almost equal popularity was the Preachers’ Summa (Summa praedicantium) written by the Dominican John of Bromyard.

Though not regarded primarily as an outstanding preacher, Nicholas of Lyra significantly influenced the progress of preaching through his Postilla litteralis. This treatise clearly distinguished between the mystical, allegorical, and literal interpretation of Scriptural tests used for sermons. He thus provided the preacher with a new exegetical approach which was a radical departure from the patristic tradition. This work had the distinction of being the first explanation of Scriptural texts to be printed.

The fifteenth century witnessed an even greater increase in the publication of collections of sermon materials. The most popular work in this category was that of Johannes of Werden with the forthright title Sleep Free from Care (Dormi secure) which may be a significant commentary on preachers and sermons of that period. The most ambitious “sermon encyclopedia” was produced by Meffreth (c. 1447) under the title Queen’s Garden (Hortulus reginae). This work supplied at least three sermons of considerable length for each Sunday and certain feast days with suitable quotations not only from sacred Scripture but from Greek and Latin authors as well.

This century likewise gives evidence of the increasing popularity of the special sermon for Lent, and the so-called mission sermon. The latter type of sermon attained a special eminence in the preaching of Vincent Ferrer, Bernardine of Sienna, John Capistran, and James of the Marches. The most widely known preacher of this era was undoubtedly Girolamo Savonarola.

That the quality of preaching at the beginning of the sixteenth century, at least in some regions, left much to be desired can readily be gathered from statements made in the eleventh session of the Fifth Lateran Council on December 19, 1516. In a document entitled Concerning the Manner of Preaching the Council complained that the gospel was not being preached, but that fictitious miracles, false prophecies, idle tales, the arrival of anti-Christ, and even the imminence of the last judgment found their way into the sermon (Conciliorum oecumenicorum decreta pp. 610–614).

4. PREACHING DURING AND AFTER THE REFORMATION

The Reformation placed a new emphasis on preaching and gave the sermon a decidedly more focal point in the revised divine worship. The duly authorized minister based his sermon on the literal meaning of the Scriptures. The sermon was regarded as the living voice of the gospel, and God spoke through the words of the preacher (Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, vol. 5, p. 522). This renewed emphasis on preaching can also be seen in the legislation of the Council of Trent which in its fifth session clearly placed the obligation of a sermon on all Sundays and feast days on the local bishops and pastors.

Added emphasis on this obligation was again brought forward in the twenty-fourth session of the council in the Decree on Reformation, canon 4, which also strongly recommended special sermons for the seasons of Advent and Lent (Conciliorum oecumenicorum decreta, p. 739). In addition to determining the responsibility for preaching the Council of Trent also took steps to secure training for preachers in the seminaries it ordered to be established. The last half of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century witnessed an era of particularly brilliant preaching in Jacques Bossuet, Louis Bourdaloue, Francois Fénelon, and Jean Baptiste Massilon.

Comparable fame was won by Henri Lacordaire, Gustave Ravignan, and Joseph Felix in their memorable conferences in the venerable cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. The well-known English cardinals, Wiseman, Manning, and Newman hold places of distinction in the annals of preaching.

In the United States during the years of immigration, preaching generally followed the practices which were traditional in the home lands of the immigrants. The parish mission in the European tradition was a regularly recurring event. Priests of a religious order or congregation, though some dioceses had their own diocesan mission band, were invited to preach twice daily for a week or even longer as the site of the parish would suggest.

The topics of the sermons dealt with fundamental truths of salvation, the reception of the sacraments, and almost invariably included special sermons on death, judgment, heaven, and hell. In some instances the missionaries would conduct a type of debate from two specially prepared pulpits. By the time of World War II the parish mission was quite generally on the decline.

With the founding of the American Ecclesiastical Review (1889) and the Homiletic and Pastoral Review (1900), considerable interest began to focus on preaching a sermon with more appeal to an audience now more acclimatized to the American scene. One of the most representative authors of articles on preaching was Msgr. H. T. Henry who wrote quite regularly for the periodicals mentioned. The influence of Cardinal Gibbons’ The Ambassador of Christ on American preaching was also considerable.

A more recent trend, having its beginnings in Europe, is the so-called kerygmatic approach designed to give greater theological dimension to the sermon. As this approach becomes more widespread it may well prove to be the factor which differentiates preaching of today from earlier forms of the sermons. In terms of this approach the preacher is not simply to set before his hearers a series of truths and precepts, no matter how essential, but to present them as a unified whole forming part of the history of salvation accomplished through Christ.

The beginnings of this approach are said to go back to the work of J. A. Jungmann, Die Frohbotschaft und unsere Glaubensverkundigung (The Good News and our Proclamation of the Faith), published in 1936. There are many today who think that this type of sermon is the one envisaged by the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy promulgated December 4, 1963.

In the directive concerning the sermon the statement is made that preaching is a “proclamation of the wondrous deeds of God in the history of salvation (Acta Apostolicae Sedis (56) 1964, p. 109). Whatever the congency of the reasoning may be the Second Vatican Council in three of its most recent documents gives unmistakable evidence of the importance it attaches to preaching, in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (Acta Apostolicae Sedis (57) 1965, p. 28), the council reiterates the statement of the Council of Trent which assigns to preaching a place of pre-eminence among the principal duties of bishops.

In the decree: On the Pastoral Office of Bishops in the Church, issued October 28, 1965, the council became more specific. It declared that bishops are to explain Christian doctrine in a way adapted to the needs of the times. It went on to say, “In expounding this teaching let them give proof of the Church’s maternal solicitude for all men, whether they be of the faith or not, and show particular concern for the poor and those in straitened circumstances to whom the Lord has sent them to preach good news.” Whether these words imply the use of the kerygmatic approach mentioned above is not clear from the context.

The same must also be said about the words of the council in which it took cognizance of the priest’s role in preaching. “Priests too, as collaborators with the bishops have the preaching of the gospel as their principal duty.… The preaching of the priest, frequently very difficult in the conditions of the modern world, must explain the word of God not merely in a general and abstract way, but by applying the eternal truth of the Gospel to the concrete circumstances of life in order to move the hearts of his hearers” (Decree: On the Ministry and Life of the Priests, December 7, 1965).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brilioth, Y. T., Landmarks in the History of Preaching. London, 1950.

Caplan, H., Medieval Artes Praedicandi: A Handlist. Ithaca N. Y. 1934.

———, Medieval Artes Praedicandi: A Supplementary Handlist. Ithaca, N. Y., 1936.

Caplan, H., King, H. H., “Pulpit Eloquence: A List of Doctrinal and Historical Studies in English,” Speech Monographs 22 (Special Issue 1955). Columbia, Missouri.

———, “Pulpit Eloquence: A List of Doctrinal and Historical Studies in German” Speech Monographs 22 (Special Issue, 1956). Columbia, Missouri.

Dargan, E. C., A History of Preaching, 2 vols. Grand Rapids, 1954.

Huesman, W., The Good News Yesterday and Today. New York, 1962. This is an abridged translation of J. Jungmann’s work with essays in appraisal of his contribution.

Jungmann, J., Die Frohbotschaft und Unsere Glaubensverkündigung. Regensburg, 1936.

Owst, G. R., Literature and Pulpit in Medieval England, 2nd ed. New York, 1961.

———, Preaching in Medieval England, Cambridge, England, 1926.

Schian, C., Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, 3rd ed., vols. 15 and 24. Leipzig, 1896–1913.

Zwart, A., The History of Franciscan Preaching and of Franciscan Preachers 1209–1927 (Franciscan Studies 7). New York, 1928.

Dressler, H. 1967. Roman Catholic Preaching. In R. G. Turnbull (Ed.), Baker’s dictionary of practical theology. (R. G. Turnbull, Ed.) (39). Baker Book House: Grand Rapids, MI

Roman Catholic Preaching – Hermigild Dressler